【摘要】语言交际是人类以维系社会关系的重要手段，因而人们在交际中通常避免使用引起双方不快从而损害双方关系的语言，而是采取迂回曲折的方法来表达思想，交流信息，它不仅是种语言现象，而且是社会现象和文化现象。委婉语言体现了相应的社会文化传统。本文主要阐述了英语委婉语的构成方法以及它的社会影响，并着重从修辞手段，语义手段，构词手段及语法手段对委婉语言作了较全面的分析，并对委婉语在交际中的语用功能和表达方式做了一些探讨，从委婉语的“避讳”功能，“礼貌”功能和“掩饰”功能三个方面探讨了委婉语在社会生活中的运用，了解委婉语在运用中的积极作用和消极作用,有助于我们更深入的了解英语国家人们的思维方式、社会价值观、道德观以及文化风俗，对于提高自身言语交际功能是十分必要的。

【关键词】委婉语；运用；社会影响;积极；消极

1.Introduction

EuphemismisoriginallyfromGreek,meaning,“speakwithgookwords”.“eu”means“wellorsoundingwell”;“pheme”means“speech”.ItsdefinitioninOxfordEnglishDictionaryis“(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mild,orindirectwordsorphrasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones.”[1]

Theappearanceofeuphemismisbasedontworeasons:oneaimstotaketheplaceof“taboo”.Whengivingupatabooword,peoplewillfindanothernewonetotaketheplaceofit,whichcreatesaeuphemism.Theotheraimstoavoidoffensivenessduringthecommunication.Itisafigureofrhetoricbywhichanunpleasantoroffensivethingisdescribedorreferredtobyamilderterm.

InEnglishlanguage,euphemismiswidelyusedinthedailycommunications.Inordertoachievetheaimof“taboo”,itisusedtoavoidtheunpleasantthing;inordertoachievetheaimof“politeness”,itisusedtoavoidtheinelegantthings[2],whicharethetwosocialpsychologicalbasisoftheemergenceofeuphemism.Euphemismisoneoftheimportantpartsoffigureofspeech.Itisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenon,butalsoakindofsocialphenomenonandculturalphenomenon.Euphemisminusediffersfrompersontoperson,fromprofessiontoprofession,evenfromclasstoclass[3],That’swhysometimesthemeaningofsomeeuphemismswillpuzzleyouifyoudonotknowthebackgroundofEnglishculture.TograsptheEnglisheuphemismcannotonlyhelpusopenoureyes,butstrengthenourabilityofreadingcomprehension.ThispaperaimstodiscusstheapplicationofeuphemisminEnglishandtomakeacknowledgeofitssocialinfluence,whichcouldhelpususeeuphemisminacorrectway.

2.Waystoexpresseuphemism

2.1.Figureofspeech

2.1.1.Metonymy.

Thatistousethegeneralwordstotaketheplaceoftheconcretewords.“Passedaway”whichrefersto“dead”belongstometonymy.Itcanbedividedintothefollowingforms:1)tousethecontainertotaketheplaceofthethingsinthecontainer.Forexample:“tobefondofthebottle”isaeuphemismfor“likingtodrink”.2)Tousetheentiretyinsteadofthepart.Forexample:“abdomen”isusedtoreferto“belly”;“limb”refersto“leg”.Forsomespecialoccasions,thepartcanbeusedinsteadoftheentirety.InAustralianEnglish“anoldhand”isaeuphemismfor“anoldprisoner”.3)Tousethetoolstotaketheplaceoftheobjects.Forexample,“pick”isatoolofpryingthelock.Itcanreferto“thief”.4)Touserawmaterialstotaketheplaceoffinishedproducts.Forinstance,“poppy”isakindofflower,butitalsorefersto“opium”.5)Tousecharacteristicstotaketheplaceofobjects.Forexample,“hellow”isagreetingword,anditisalsoaeuphemismfor“prostitute”becauseprostitutesoftenusethiswordtosolicitthewhoremasters;“bloodandiron”isaeuphemismfor“violence”.6)Touseproperwordstoreplacetheobjects.Forexample,“napoleon”isaFrenchgoldencoinonwhichthereisNapoleon’sheadportrait.“Borstal”isanameofcountrysideinKentinBritain.Itcanalsoreferto“juveniledelinquency”.

Sometimes,someeuphemismsarefrequentlyusedinsteadoftheoriginalwords;peoplegraduallyforgettheireuphemisticidentities.Theyarenotusedintermsofeuphemismsbuthavetheirownindependentmeanings.Forinstance,takeabove-mentioned“poppy”,nowifyoulookupthiswordinthedictionary,youcanfindthemeaningof“opium”,ithaslostitseuphemisticfunction.And,ifyoudonotknowthebackground,youcannotknowthemeaningof“Napoleon”and“Borstal”.Therefore,wecanseetheimportanceofknowingthebackgroundofEnglishculture.Itcanhelpyoualottorecognizeandunderstandtherealmeaningofeuphemismandmakegooduseofit.

2.1.2.Metaphor

Tousemetaphorcaneasilyavoidtheoffensivethings.Forexample,whereforeitisbettertobeaguestofthelaw,which,thoughconductedbyrules,doesnotmeddleundulywithagentleman’sprivateaffairs.(O.Henry,TheCopandtheAnthem)“tobeaguestofthelaw”isaeuphemismfor“tobeinprison”[4],Manyeuphemismsfor“death”werecreatedbywayofmetaphor,suchasgoingtohislonghome,tobehomeandfree,togotosleep,tosleepthelong(oreternal,never-ending)sleep,torestinpeace,tobeatrest,togotoHeaven(orParadise),tojoinone’sancestors,tobegatheredtoone’sfathers,tojointheimmortals.Moreexamplesare:aged→sunsetyears,tobepoor→tobepinched,tohaveimpropersexualintercoursewithgirls(especiallymaiden)→todeflower;todegenerate→togoastray;breast→milkbottles;catamenia→theredflag;tobepregnant→tobeonthenest;themoneyofbribery→grease;tobribe→togreasesomebody’spalm;handcuffs→bracelets.

2.1.3Personification

People’snamesareoftenusedtoreplacetaboowords.Forexample,“BigHarry”refersto“heroin”because“Harry”and“heroin”havethesameinitials.“Lavatory”alsohasmanyeuphemisticalexpressions.In19thcentury,itwascalled“myauntJones”,“Mrs.Jones”,“SirJohn”,“SirHarry”,“theHenry”,whilein20thcentury,itwascalled“jakes”,“john”etc.Butthelattercolorofpersonificationbecomesweak.Thefirstlettercanbewritteninsmallletter.Peoplejustuseitasacommonnoun.Infact,theyhavelosttheeuphemisticfunction.Therearemanyhumorouswaystoexpresscatameniaintermsofpersonification:1)Myfriendhascome.2)Ihaveavisitor.3)Mycousins/countrycousinshavecome.4)Myauntie/grandmotherhascometostay.5)Littlesisterishere.6)I’vegotpaintersin.7)thecardinalhascome.

2.1.4.Analogy

Intheeuphemismsforoccupationpeopleoftenuseanalogy,whichmakesthehumblenamemoreelegant[5],Forexample,“chef”isaeuphemismfor“cook”.ItisborrowedfromFrenchword“chefdecuisine”.“Beautician”refersto“hairdresser”;“garbologist”refersto“garbagecollector”;“mortician”refersto“undertaker”.Therealsoappearedsomebeautifulnamesforbarbershop:hairsalon,beautyparlour,andstylistparlour.

2.1.5.Ellipsis

Thatistoomittheoffensivewordswhilespeaking,suchastobeexpecting(ababy),tohave(sexual)relationswithsomebody,totakeprecautions(againstpregnancy),todepart(fromthisworld).Ofcourse,suchphrasesshouldbeputintoacertaincontext,whichcanexpressthemeaningofeuphemisms.

2.1.6.Periphrasis

Itisanexpressionofbeatingaroundthebush.Thoughitisamuddledacting,itsaimistoavoidoffendingothers,andtobemorepolite[6].Ifsomeoneaskedawomanwhethershewasknittingatinygarment,hemeantthathewonderedwhethershewaspregnant.Suchwayofspeakingishumorous,sweetandagreeable,suchastodie→tocloseone’seyes,toexpire,tobreatheone’slast;todefecateandtourinate→towashone’shands,toeaseorrelieveoneself,todoone’sbusiness;tocourt→togowalking;tobepregnant→toeatfortwo;lavatory→washroom,cloakroom;fart→windfrombehind;women’sunderclothes→unmentionables;trousers→nethergarments;askyoutogoaway→callyourcarriageforyou;todismiss→togivesomebodythesack;tobeinprison→toliveatthegovernment''''sexpense.Teachersoftenusethisexpressiontoavoidthestudents’andtheirparents’awkwardness.Forexample,lazinessiscalled“needingamplesupervisioninordertoworkwell”;“cheat”isdescribedas“needinghelpinlearningtoadheretorulesandstandardsoffairplay”;“lies”iscalled“showingdifficultyindistinguishingbetweenimaginaryandfactualmaterial”;“steal”iscalled“needinghelpinlearningtorespectthepropertyrightsofothers”;“beabully”refersto“havingqualitiesofleadershipbutneedshelpinlearningtousethemdemocratically”;“dirty”iscalled“belackofproperhealthhabits”.[7]

2.2.Semanticmethod

2.2.1.Synonym

Forexample,“tight”isusedinsteadof“stingy”;“thrift”isusedinsteadof“economical”,“defecate”replaces“shift”and“urine”replaces“piss”.And“mad”isreplacedby“crazy”,“insane”,and“lunatic”.Sucheuphemismaimstousetheappreciativetermtotaketheplaceofthederogatoryterm.

2.2.2.Negation

Sucheuphemismusesthecontrarytermtoexpressthesamemeaning,anditcouldbemoreusefulthansynonyminreplacingthetabooandmakepeoplemoreunderstandableandcomfortable.Wecouldcallstupidpeopleunwisepeople.“Afatchance”means“aslimchance”and“findwords”standsfor“badwords”

2.2.3.Vaguewordsandexpressions

Thatistomaketheharsheroroffensivewordsmoregeneral.Forexample,ifsomebodyhassomementalproblems,wecanexpressitlikethis:Hisroofleaksalittle;hehasascrewloose/missing;heisnotathome.Thereareotherexampleswhichusevagueexpressions,suchasdisease→trouble,problem;tocomeacrossanunfortunatething→tohaveanaccident;V.D.(venerealdisease)→secretdisease;tolivetogetherillegally→tocohabit;intrauterinedevice→ring;torapesomebody→todoviolencetosomebody;prostitute→awomanofthestreets,awomanofacertainclass,apaintedwoman,aladyofthenightgirl;toentertainwhorehousevisitors→toseecompany;whorehouse→house;asquint→anobliquityofvision;amanofbadtaste→amanofdoubtfultaste;strike→industrialaction;thepoor→theunderprivileged,thedisadvantaged;indebt→indifficulties;buttocks→behind,bottom,backsides;homosexual→queer;sexualintercourse→intimacy;tobekilled→tobeputtosleep.

2.2.4.Loanwords

BecausefromtheperiodofRenaissance,Latin,Greek,andFrenchareconsideredasculturedwords[8].Peopleconsiderthatthoselanguagesaremoreelegant,tactfulandambiguous.Intheearly19thcentury,nomatterinBritainorAmerica,peopleusedFrenchword“enceinte”insteadofEnglishword“pregnant”.Itispopulartillnowbecausetheformerismoreelegant,tactfulandambiguous.EnglishborrowswordsnotonlyfromFrenchbutalsofromotherlanguagesinmanykindsofwaystocreateitsowneuphemism.Forexample,“lavatory”wasborrowedfromLatinword“lavatorium”,butitlostitsmeaningofeuphemismbecauseoflong-timeusing.Therefore,peopleborrowedanothereuphemismfromFrench“toilette”whichwasrespelledinto“toilet”,anditbecamethemostpopulareuphemismreferringtolavatory.Frenchwords“chemise”and“lingerie”areeuphemismsfor“underwear”and“blouse”respectively.“sushi”wasborrowedfromJapanese“すし”.ItsoriginalmeaningisakindofJapanesefood.Peopleputitintoaphrase“alittletonguesushi”,whichmeans“tonguekissing”.Theabovewordsmostlybelongtothecommonvocabulary.Inaddition,euphemismsalsoborrowsomescienceandtechnologicalwordsandacademicwordsthatarecold,clinicandantiseptic.SuchwordsaremainlyfromLatinandGreek.Forexample,Latinword“coitus”isaeuphemismfor“fuck”;Nativewords“shit”and“piss”arealldirtywords,whileLatinword“defecation”andGreekword“urination”areallacceptedeasily.

2.2.5.Understatement

Thatistostatesomeseriousthingsinatemperatewayinordertoavoidbeingawkwardandstrident[9].Forexample,“Shewasneitherquiteprettynorquietplain.”“Plain”isusedinsteadof“ugly”;“MycousinJimmywasabitsoftinthehead.”“Softinthehead”means“mad”;“Theboyusedtotakethingswithoutpermissionandhasjustbeenoutoftherehabilitationhomeinthecountry.”(steal,detentionhome);theperiodofeconomicdepression→aperiodofeconomicadjustment;moneyforbribery→kickback,commission;poorfamilies→lowincomefamilies;fallingbehind→lessadvanced;retardedchildren→lessablechildren;anuglygirl→aplainorhomelygirl;disabled→physicallyhandicapped;tobeill→tolookoffcolor,tofeelunwelloruncomfortable;treatment→healthcare;oldage→advancedinage.

2.3.Thevarietyofpronunciationandspellingform

Englishisanalphabeticwriting.Thevariationofphoneticformcanavoidtheoriginalconceptioninacertaindegreeandachievethepurposeofeuphemism.1)Compounding:gezunda(goesunder).2)Acronym:DA(drugaddict),KG(knowgambler),B.O.T(balanceoftime),J.D(juveniledelinquent),PandQ(peaceandquiet).3)Back-formation:burgle(burgler)4)chipping:vamp(vampire),homo(homosexual),gents(Gentlemen’sRoom),andladies(LadiesRoom)[10].

Thereisaninterestingexample:“laboratory”,theoriginalstresswasonthefirstsyllable.Butitsoundedsimilarlyto“lavatory”.Inordertoavoidtheunpleasantconnection,thestresswasmovedtothesecondsyllable.SuchphenomenoniscalledAssonance.Thatistomakeuseofortocreatewords,whichhavethesameorsimilarpronunciationswitheuphemisticwordsinordertoachievethepurposeofeuphemism.Therefore,inEnglishthereisawayofpersonificationtoexpress“catamenia”:Thecaptainisathome.Itisbecause“captain”isassonantwiththemedicalscienceterm“catamenia”.InoralEnglish,“pee”isusedtoreferto“piss”,whichhasthesamereason.

2.4.Grammar

Thatistousepasttense,negativesentencetoexpresseuphemism.Forexample,Icanseebyyourfacethatyoudon’tthinkthatwaswise.Thenegativeformmeans“thinkingthatwasfoolish”;“Howdowefeeltoday?”Using“we”insteadof“you”showsthemoderationandgeniality.“Iwantedto…”“Iwondered…”oftentaketheplaceof“Iwantto…”“Iwonder…”SuchexpressionisoftenusedinoralEnglish.[11]

3TheSocialInfluencesofEuphemism

EuphemismiswidelyusedinAmericaandBritain.Ithasalonghistory.Neweuphemismsemergeinanendlessstream.Accordingtoitsappliedfunctions,I’dliketodivideitintothreeparts:Avoidance,CourtesyandDisguise.Throughstudyingthethreefunctions,wecanunderstandthewesternsociety’sviewonvalueandmorality.

3.1.Avoidance

TheearliestsubjectofEuphemismisreligious[12].Theconceptionoftabooisdeep-rootedinpeople’smind,anditisnoteasytoremove.TheappearanceoftaboocoulddatebacktoancientGreekandancientRoman.Inhuman’seyesGodownsasuperpowerthatcouldcontroleverything.Becausefearingofthesecretpower,Peopleuseeuphemismtoavoidmentioningtheguilty,unpleasant,rudeoroffensivewords,whichplaysaroleofpurifyinglanguages.Forexample,EuropeanAmericansavoidspeaking“Friday”and“13”.Whenthetwothingsappearinthesameday,itisanillomen.Andthereisanexample:thereappearedanepisodein1972whenPresidentNicosonvisitedChina.ChinesePremierZhouwenttoShanghaitoreceiveAmericanvisitors.HefoundthatMr.andMrs.NicosonwerearrangedtoliveinRoom15,KissingerinRoom14,butsomestatecouncilorsinRoom13?TheWesternpeopleoftentakeNumber13asataboo.Afterenteringtheirapartments,PremierZhouwasawarethattheseWesternvisitorsseemedunhappy.Soheexplained:”itisapitythatwehavemadeaseriousmistake.WeignoredthespecialWesternculture.”Hecontinued,”TherewasanoldChinesefablethatwhenamanwasafraidofghost,themorehethought,themorehefeltterrified.Atthetimehefeltnofear,hebegantolookfortheghost,buttheghostdisappeared…Number13inWesternculturelookedliketheChineseghost.”Hearinghisstory,theAmericanvisitorslaughedheartily.Atlasttheycooleddown.Fromthisexample,wecanrealizethenecessityoftheculturalinfiltrationinlanguagecommunication.Sowemustpayattentiontothesocialinfluenceofeuphemism.Thisavoidancefunctionisthefirstcommunicationfunctionofeuphemisms[13].Suchfunctionisoftenusedinthefollowingsituations:

3.1.1.TheeuphemismsforGodanddevil

TheTenCommandmentsofBiblehasprescribed,“ThoushaltnottakethenameoftheLordthyGodinvain;fortheLordwillnotholdhimguiltlessthattakethhisnameinvain.”That’swhytherearesomanyeuphemisms.InoralEnglish,using“God”causallywouldbeconsideredblasphmous.Ifsomeonesay“Goddamniit”heistreasonandheresy,andwouldbepunished[14].Someofthemadoptthesemanticmethod,suchastheCreator,theMaker,theSupreme(Being),HolyOne,theAlmighty,theEternal,OurFather,theSaviour,KingofKings,Lordoflords,theLightoftheWorld,SovereignoftheUniverse.Someofthemadoptthephoneticmethod,suchasGad,Gosh,Golly,Godfreyetc.Therearemanyeuphemismsfor“thedevil”,suchasoldenemy,oldNed,OldNick,OldOne,Ole’un(OldMan),OldScratch,OldSerpent,theOldBoyetc.Forexample,“HewasfrightenedasifOldHarrywerebeforehim.”InEnglishtheyoftenuse“heck”insteadof“hell”.“hell”hasotherexpressions:“theotherplace,averyuncomfortableplace,theotherwayetc.”Forexample,“WewereallgoingdirecttoHeaven;wewereallgoingdirecttheotherway.”[15]

3.1.2Theeuphemismsfordeath

Euphemismisoftencausedinspeakingofthingsthatarepainfulanddistressingtothinkabout.Deathisoneofexpressions.Theeuphemismsfordeathareawidelyuseditem,especiallywhenitconcernsone’sownfamiliesandfriends.Ithasalotofexpressions[16].Forexample,ifanythingshouldhappentome(=whenIdie);topassaway/on;todepart;togotosleep;tobenolongerwithus;tobeinterred.“Death”alsohassomehumorousexpressions:“topopoff;topushupdaisies;tocashinone’schips;tokickthebucket”.“Death”alsohasanintimaterelationshipwithreligion.TherearemanyeuphemismsfromBible,forexample,toreturntodust/earth;topaythedebtofnature;tobecalledtoGod/toanswerthefinalsummons;togotoheaven;tobeatpeace,tobeasleepintheArmsofGod;toyielduptheghost;tolaunchintoeternity;tohaveone’snameinscribedintheBookoflifeetc.Somewords,whichconcern“death”,alsohaveeuphemisticexpressions.Forexample,“coffin”iscalled“casket”;“deadbody”iscalled“earthlyremains”;“funeral”iscalled“memorialservice”;“graveyard”iscalled“memorygarden”.

3.1.3.Theeuphemismsforillness,naturalandman-madecalamities

Mostwesternersavoidtalkingaboutsomeseriousdiseases.Forinstance,“terminallyill”isaeuphemismfor“cancer”;AmericanandBritishnewspapersoftenname“syphilis”as“socialdisease”;“leprosy”iscalled“Hansen’sdisease”;“constipation”iscalled“irregularity”.“tumour”iscalled“agrowth”;“commitsuicide”iscalled“self-deliveranceorself-violence”.Peopleoftenuseinitialingtoavoidtalkaboutsomediseasesdirectly,suchasAIDS(AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome);BigC(Cancer);VD(VenerealDisease)etc.“todiebecauseofacrash”iscalled“oldNewtontookhim”;“hara-kiri”iscalled“happydispatch”;“anunnaturaldeath”iscalled“tobeblownacrossthecreek”

3.1.4.Theeuphemismsforsex

Nearlyalllanguagesconsider“sex”atabooword.Inthewest,whenchildrenaskedtheirparentswheretheycamefrom,theirparentsoftenansweredthebabywasavisitfromthestork.Peoplecansay“pregnant”insteadof“expecting”or“inthefamilyway”;“fart”isalsowrittenintothedictionary.Youcansayitdirectlyinsteadofsaying,“windfrombehind”Itisjustbecauseofthemovementof“sexliberty”and“sexliberation”.Peoplecanhaveafreertalkabout“sex”thanVictorianage.Onthecontrary,someotherneweuphemismsforsexappearedoneafteranother.“Sexualknowledge”iscalled“factsoflife”;“pornographicmovies”iscalled“adultfilms”;“cohabitation”hasbecomeverycommoninwesternsociety.Itisalsocalledakindofmarriage:“trialmarriage”or“unmarriedwife”.Nevertheless,withthesharpincreaseoftherateofdivorce,thereappearedmanyeuphemismsfordivorce:“tobreakup”,“tosplitup,and“matchruptcy”(ablendingof“match”and“bankruptcy”).Andthehomosexualitywouldbecalled“Greekarts”,“queer”,“gay”.Thereisanotherinterestingphrase“togotoReno”.“Reno”,asmallcityinthewestofNevada,isfamousforitseasyandfastproceduresofdivorce.So“togotoReno”alsobecomesaeuphemismfordivorce.

3.1.5.Theeuphemismsforbirth

ContrarytotheChinesetraditionalopinion,inwesterncountries,“beingpregnant”and“havingababy”arenotconsidered“ablessedevent”.AustralianEnglishevencallit“ablastedevent”.InAmerica,“toweartheapronhigh”,“towear/havethebellyhigh”areeuphemismsfor“tobepregnant”,whileinBritain,“towearthebustlewrong”isaeuphemismfor“tobepregnant”.In19thcentury,aslimwaististheidealfigureforBritishwomen.Therefore,“tobepregnant”isalsocalled“tobeawkward”,“inabadway/shape”;“tomakeawomanpregnant”iscalled“tospoil/ruinawoman’sshape”.Someoneevencalled“tobepregnant”“tobecaught”or“tobefallen”.Somevagueexpressionsalsoshowakindofrestlessmood,suchas:thatway,inacertain/particular/delicateconditionetc.Theuseofhumorisanotherfeatureofeuphemismfor“beingpregnant”.Americanpeoplearelikelytosay“tohaveawatermelononthevine”,or“toswallowawatermelonseed”.Britishpeoplearelikelytosay“tohaveabunintheoven”or“tohaveanIrishtoothache”(tomakefunofIrishpeoplewhoarepregnantascommonlyashavingatoothache).

3.2.Courtesy

Anotherreasontouseeuphemismisthatitavoidstheharshanddirectwordinapoliteway,andmakesthesentencesoundmorepleasant.Tograspthepolitefunctionofeuphemismcanhelpyoubuildagoodrelationshipwithothers.Thepolitefunctionsareespeciallyreflectedintheoccupations,ortrades.ItrelatewithPolitenessPrincipleofLeech[17].Itisobviousthatadvertisementisaimedathelpingbusinessmenpropagandatheirgoods,forthesakeofsolicitingcustoms.Asapleasantway,usingeuphemismsinadvertisementshasbecomemoreandmorewidespread.Now,“secondhandstore”hasbeenreplacedby“resalestore”,“super”,“giant”,“special”,suchwords,havebecomemorepopular.Moreover,wecanoftenseethesamephenomenonabouttheexpressionsforclassesofcabins.Todefendpassengers’honor,“FirstClass”ischangedto“DeluxeClass”,“SecondClass”isto“FirstClass”,“ThirdClass”to“BusinessClass”,and“EconomicClass”to“TouristClass”.Thisfunctionundoubtlyplaysanactiveroleofimprovingtheprogressofsociety:

3.2.1.Theeuphemismfortheofficeandtrade

Forexample,“mentalhospitalormentalhealthcenter”isaeuphemismfor“madhouse”;“mortuaryorfuneral”isaeuphemismofdeadhouse.Somesmallcompaniesorsmallenterprisesliketousetheword“industry”,suchashotelindustry,touristindustry,garageindustry,women’sbeautyindustryetc.

3.2.2.Theeuphemismforoccupation

Inordertopromotethesocialstatusoftheoccupation,almosteveryhumbleoccupationhasasweet-soundingname.Therearemainlytwoforms:

1).Compound.Thatistochoosesomesweet-soundingoccupationalnamestomakeupcompoundorcompoundphrases.Forexample,todaywecanfindmanyoccupationsinAmericaandBritainnamedwith“engineer”:sanitary(orsanitation)engineer;building(custodian,dwelling)engineer;automobileengineer;drycleaningengineer,pipeengineer;heatingengineer;packingengineer;salesengineer;housewife→domesticengineer;thepersonwhoisinchargeofkillingmiceandcockroaches→exterminating(extermination)engineer.Therearesomeothercommontitles:automotiverepairman→automotiveinternist;gardenworker→landscapearchitect;prisonguard→correctionalofficer;pest-killer→pestcontroloperator;butcher→meattechnologist.Somehumbleoccupationshavemanyeuphemisticnamesatthesametime.Forexample,peopleoftencall“hairstylist”“tonsorialartist”,whilepeoplecall“femalehairdresser”“womansurgeon”;“undertaker”alsohasmanyexpressions:bereavementcounselor,grieftherapist,funeraldirector,funeralservicepractitioner.Besides“engineer”housewifealsocanbecalled“householdexecutive”,“homemaker”,even“domesticmanager”;“Prostitute”alsohasmanyeuphemisms,suchaspavementprincess,workinggirl,streetwalker,callgirl,businessgirletc.

2).Derivation.ThatistochoosesomeLatinandGreekprefixeswhosemeaningsreferto“aperson”,suchas“-(o)logist”.“mixologist”isaeuphemismfor“abar’swaiter”;dustmanforgarbologist;femalehairdresserforcosmetologist;undertakerformortician;cobblerforshoetrician;locksmithforlocktician.Somespecialoccupationalnameshaveadoptedtwoprefixes.Forexamplecosmetologistandcosmeticianbothreferto“femalehairdresser”.Moreover,Latinprefix“-arian”isoriginallyusedinreligion,butnowitisalsousedintheoccupation,suchas:bartarian,sanitarian.AnotherLatinprefix“-ian”isalsousedpopularly,suchascustodian(entranceguardordustman).Somepeopleevenwanttochangethenativeprefix“-er”totheLatinprefix“-or”becausetheythinktheforeignprefixismoreelegantandsweet-sounding,suchasweldor,wildanimaltrainor.

3.2.3.Theeuphemismsfortheagedandweight

Theage,especiallyawoman’sageisregardedasasensitiveprivacy.Andmostofthewesternpeopleareafraidofgettingold,sotheycall“oldpeople”“seniorcitizens”.”oldage”and“senility”caneasilycausethefearoftheoldpeople.Someeuphemisticexpressionstaketheplaceofthem,suchas“gettingon(inyears),pastone’sprime,feelingone’sage,secondchildhood,adistinguishedgentleman,agrandedame,thirdage”.Theoldpeoplebecome“anelderstatesman”or“oldagepensioner”orevenuseinitialing“OAP”.Theyarenot“old”but“long-lived”.Oldpeople’shome,ofcourse,isnotanidealplaceforoldmentolivein.Therearemanyeuphemisticexpressions:ahomeforadults,anursinghome,aresthome,aprivatehospital,aconvalescenthospital.Theoldpeoplewholivetherearecalledeuphemistically“aresident”.

Inwesterncountry,itisveryimpoliteifyoutalkaboutsomeone’sfigureandweightwithoutreservation.Ifsomeoneis“fat”,“overweight”isoftenusedtoreplaceit.“weight-watchers”isalsoaeuphemismfor“fatpeople”.Tofemale,“afatgirl”iscalled“afullerfigureorplump”;tomale,“fat”iscalled“stout”;tochild,itiscalled“chubby”.Onthecontrary,ifsomeoneistoothin,euphemismisalsoused.Tomale,itiscalled“lean”,andtofemale,itiscalled“slim,slender,willowyorsvelte”.

3.2.4.Theeuphemismsforpovertyandunemployment

Thetopicofpovertyandunemploymentmightcausesomeembarrassment,sopeopleoftenuseeuphemismwhentheirtalksconcernsuchthings.Forexample,“dismissal”isoftencalled“layoff,easeout,getthewalkingticket/pinkslip”;“bankruptcy”iscalled“outofthegame”;“penniless”iscalled“outofpocket,inreducedcircumstances,badlyoff,needyetc.”;“thepoorpeople”iscalled“thehave-nots,theunderprivileged,thedisadvantaged”;eventheirhousesalsohaveasweet-soundingname-“substandardhousing”.Theeuphemismforunemploymenthasmanyexpressions.Mostofthemarehumorous,suchas“betweenjobs”,“betweenshows”,“tobedevelopinganewproject”,“toreceiveaMexicanraise/anIrishpromotion”(toraiseapromotionwithoutraisingthesalary),“tobeself-employed”.InAmerica“unemployedmen”arecalled“claimants”,while,inBritain,theyarecalled“tobeonpublicassistance”.Ofcourse,someeuphemismsarepessimistic:TheBritishunemployedmencantake50percentofftheticketofafilmandadrama,sotheyalsocanbecalled“thelessfortunate”.

3.2.5.Theeuphemismsforexcretion

Allwordsconcerning“excretion”excepttearsareconsideredtaboowords.Theeuphemismsfor“lavatory”havemanywaysofexpressions,suchaswatercloset,cloakroom,comfortstation,toilet(whichispopularinBritain),restroom(whichisgenerallyusedinAmerica).InAmerica,“conveniencestation”iswrittenEnglish,while“bathroom”isoralEnglish.“John”isslang,while“poet’scorner”isacrackjoke.InBritain,theyuse“Jakes”insteadof“John”.Theyuse“publiccomfortstation”insteadof“publicconveniencestation”.Men’slavatoryiscalled“Gent’s,theJohn,thewashroom”;Women’slavatoryiscalled“Ladies’,thepowderroom,powderone’snose(Br.);powderone’spuff(Am.);Mrs.Jones”.Therearealsomanywaystoexpress“urination”and“defecation”,suchas,togotothebathroom/restroom/powderroom,todoone’sbusiness,toanswernature’scall..

Thereareotherexpressions.Forinstance,Ihavetoretireforamoment./Iwouldliketobeexcused.Interrogativesentencescanalsobeused:Whereistherestroom?WherecanIwashmyhands?Ladiescansay,“I’dliketoaddsomemakeup.”inordertoavoidtheawkwardness.

3.3.Disguise

Oppositetothepositiveinfluencesofeuphemism,therearesomedifferentsayingsaboutit.SomepeoplecondemneuphemismsasdemoralizingbecauseofitshypocrisywhileotherslikeHilaireBellocconsiderthema‘psychologicalnecessity”[18].Oneofthemostimportantreasonsisthateuphemismisusedtoconcealsomescandalousbehaviorsandcrimes.Therefore,euphemismcanalsobringaboutthenegativeinfluences,whichareembodiedinthefollowingtwoaspectsaccordingtoitsconcealingfunction:

3.3.1.Theeuphemismsfortherequirementsofpoliticsandwar.

Becauseoftherequirementsofpoliticsandwar,theBritishandAmericanpoliticiansusedsomeeuphemismstoconcealtheinternaltruth,andcheatthepublic.Forexample,the“WaterGate”iscalled“scenario”[19].SomeAmericanwriterscriticizedthattheseeuphemismscreatedfromthe“WaterGate”weredemoralizingandhypocritical.“Time”evensaiddirectly,“Theseeuphemismsalltellitlikeitisn’t.”[20]Thepersonwhostealstheinformationiscalled“plumber”;Thepersonwhoisagainstgovernmentisoftencalled“dissidents”;AmericanandBritishpeoplename“riot”as“disturbance”or“disorder”;“strike”iscalled“walk-out,downtools,industrialactionorindustrialdispute”;“economiccrises”iscalled“recession”or“depression”.Intheaspectofmilitaryaffair,“thenumberofthedead”iscalled“bodycount”;“aggression”iscalled“pre-emptiveaction”or“involvement”;“rout”iscalled“phasedwithdrawal”、“strategicwithdrawal”、“lightandscatteredaction”or“breakoffcontactwithenemy”.Theeuphemismsfor“tokill”areoftencalled“totakecareof,todisposeof,toremove,torubout,topuffout,toputaway,totouchoffetc.”“U.S.overseasmilitaryemployment”iscalled“Americanpresence”;“civiliancasualties”iscalled“collateraldamage”;“bombingandblasting”iscalled“softeninguptheresistance”.Peopleseldommention“nuclearweapons”,but“ananti-personnelweapon”.“Non-nuclearweapon”iscalled“aconventionalweapon”.AmericanmediacalledtheirinvasiontoHaitibytheirmarines“anincident”,calledtheinvestigationofAmericanairplanesinRussianterritorialairspace“anoverflight”.Wecanseetheconcealingfunctionofeuphemismsbecomestheneedsofthestruggle,thetoolofcheatingpeople.

3.3.2.Theeuphemismsforcrime

Crimeisalsoaverysensitivetopic.Thejudgecansay,“Iherebysentenceyoutofiveyearsinprison.”Whilethefamiliesandfriendsofthecriminalarelikelytousetheeuphemisticexpression,suchas“tosendtothebighouse,tosenduptheriver,tobelivingatthegovernment’sexpense.”“juveniledelinquents”isaeuphemismfor“youngcriminals”;“prison”iscalled“correctionalcenter”;“burglary”iscalled“surreptitiousentry”;“rape”iscalled“criminalassault”;“theofficer’sactofstealingorembezzling”iscalled“Theymisusepublicfunds.”“Deathpenalty”iscalled“capitalpunishment”.

3.4.Thecountries’namesaseuphemism

InEnglish,thereisanotherspecialeuphemisticexpression.Thatistouseothercountries’namesinsteadofsomeharsherormoreoffensivewords.Theappearanceoftheseeuphemismsismostlybecauseofthehistoricandculturalreasons.Forinstance,becauseFrenchhadruledBritain,BritishpeopleliketomakefunoftheFrench.Theycalled“syphilis”“theFrenchdisease”.“Frenchletter”isaeuphemismfor“condom”;“abortivepill”iscalled“Frenchlunarpill”;“pornographicnovels/prints”iscalled“Frenchnovels(prints)”.ItseemsthattheFrenchdoesallthebadthings.In17thcentury,thewarbetweenBritainandDutchalsoledtoalotofanti-Dutchwords,includingeuphemisms.“Prostitute”iscalled“Dutchwidow”;“commitsuicide”iscalled“Dutchact/cure”;“Dutchcourage”isan“artificialcourage”;“Dutchcheer”isaeuphemismfor“liquor”.ItwassaidthattheDutchoftendranksomeliquortobuilduptheircourage.BesidesFrenchandDutch,Britainalsomakesfunofothercountries.“Condom”hasothereuphemisticexpressionsintermsofcountry’sname,suchasSpanishletter,Americanletter,andItalianletter.“Abortivepill”isalsocalled“Portuguesefemalepill”;“Russianroulette”isaeuphemismfor“tointendtocommitsuicide”;“Mexicanraise.Irishpromotion”means“tobedismissed”;“Egyptianphysicaltraining”means“tosleepatdaytime”;“Chinese”isalsoincludedinthisusage,anditreferstoakindof“heroin”.“Chinesewhite”isaeuphemismfor“spiritedheroin”;“Chinesered”alsorefersto“heroin”.Inaword,theBritishandtheAmericanrelatealotofoffensivethingswithothercountries’names.Thatiswhy“exotic”hasthemeaningof“erotic”.“Exoticclub”becamethe“stripteasenightclub”;“exoticdancer”becamethe“go-godancer”.BesidesEnglish,otherwesterncountriesalsohavesucheuphemisticphenomena.Infact,itisLinguisticChauvinism.

4.Conclusion

Euphemismappearswithfalseappearance,andexertsasubtleinfluenceonexposingthetruth.Thatistousetheneutralorpleasantwordstoexpresssomeawkwardoroffensivecontents.AstotheEnglishlearners,weshouldnotonlypayattentiontoitsapplicationonappropriateoccasions,buttoitsinfluences.Itsactivefunctionscancoordinatetheinterpersonalrelationships,releasethecontradictionsandavoidtheconflicts.Thenegativefunctionsaretoconfoundrightandwrong,beautifytheshamefulbehaviorsandconcealtheessence.Languageitselfhasnottheclasscharacter,butdifferentpeople,politicalpartiesandcountriescanconsideritatooltoserveforthem.Thatiswhysomeonenamedeuphemismsas“comfortablewords”or“cosmeticwords”.Indailylife,weshouldpayattentiontotheinfluencesthattheactiveandnegativefunctionsofeuphemismsbringus,andkeepthenegativefunctionsfromcorruptingourthoughts.

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