老人与海海明威
老人与海海明威范文第1篇
可是老人没有沮丧，没有倦怠，他继续出海，向限度挑战。他终于钓到了一条鱼。如同那老人是人中的英雄一样，这条鱼也是鱼中的英雄。鱼把他拖到海上去，把他拖到远离陆地的地方，在海上与老人决战。在这场鱼与人的恶战中，鱼也有获胜的机会。鱼在水下坚持了几天几夜，使老人不能休息，穷于应付，它用酷刑来折磨老人，把他弄得血肉模糊。这时，只要老人割断钓绳，就能使自己摆脱困境，得到解放，但这也就意味着宣告自己是失败者。老人没有作这样得选择，甚至没有产生过放弃战斗的念头。他把那条鲨鱼当作一个可与之交战的敌手，一次又一次地做着限度之外的战斗，他战胜了。
老人载着他的鱼回家去，鲨鱼在路上抢劫他的猎物。他杀死了一条来袭的鲨鱼，但是折断了他的鱼叉。于是他用刀子绑在棍子上做武器。到刀子又折断的时候，似乎这场战斗已经结束了。他失去了继续战斗的武器，他又遇到了他的限度。这是，他又进行了限度之外的战斗：当夜幕降临，更多的鲨鱼包围了他的小船，他用木棍、用桨、甚至用舵和鲨鱼搏斗，直到他要保卫的东西失去了保卫的价值，直到这场搏斗已经变得毫无意义的时候他才住手。
老人回到岸边，只带回了一条白骨，只带回了残破不堪的小船和耗尽了精力的躯体。人们怎样看待这场斗争呢？
有人说老人桑地亚哥是一个失败了得英雄。尽管他是条硬汉，但还是失败了。
什么叫失败？也许可以说，人去做一件事情，没有达到预期得目的，这就是失败。
但是，那些与命运斗争的人，那些做接近自己限度的斗争的人，却天生地接近这种失败。老人到海上去，不能期望天天有鱼来咬他的钩，于是他常常失败。一个常常在进行着接近自己限度的斗争的人总是会常常失败的，一个想探索自然奥秘的人也常常会失败，一个想改革社会的人更是会常常失败。只有那些安于自己限度之内的生活的人才总是“胜利”，这种“胜利者”之所以常胜不败，只是因为他的对手是早已降伏的，或者说，他根本没有投入斗争。
在人生的道路上，“失败“这个词还有另外的含义，即是指人失去了继续斗争的信心，放下了手中的武器。人类向限度屈服，这才是真正的失败。而没有放下手中武器，还在继续斗争，继续向限度挑战的人并没有失败。如此看来，老人没有失败，老人从未放下武器，只不过是丧失了武器。老人没有失去信心，因此不应当说他是“失败了的英雄”。
那么，什么也没有得到的老人竟是胜利的么？我确是这样看的。我认为，胜利就是战斗到最后的时刻。老人总怀着无比的勇气走向莫测的大海，他的信心是不可战胜的。
他和其他许多人一样，是强悍的人类的一员。我喜欢这样的人，也喜欢这样的人性。我发现，人们常常把这样的事情当作人性最可贵的表露：七尺男子汉坐在厨房里和三姑六婆磨嘴皮子，或者衣装笔挺的男女们坐在海滨，谈论着高尚的、别人不能理解的感情。我不喜欢人们像这样沉溺在人性软弱的部分之中，更不喜欢人们总是这样描写人性。
正像老人每天走向大海一样，很多人每天也走向与他们的限度斗争的战场，仿佛他们要与命运一比高低似的。他们是人中的强者。
人类本身也有自己的限度，但是当人们一再把手伸到限度之外，这个限度就一天一天地扩大了。人类在与限度的斗争中成长。他们把飞船送上太空，他们也用简陋的渔具在加勒比海捕捉巨大的马林鱼。这些事情是同样伟大的。做这样不可思议的事情的人都是英雄。而那些永远不肯或不能越出自己限度的人是平庸的人。
老人与海海明威范文第2篇
海明威的内心蕴藏着巨大的能量，一生的伟大文学成就都是在自己53岁创作的名篇《老人与海》中体现出来的。这部文学作品为海明威赢得了诺贝尔文学奖的至高荣誉，成为经典的文学作品，影响了一代又一代的读者。同样是这样的一部文学作品，其中蕴涵了海明威的内心世界和矛盾的心理斗争。这部文学作品折射出了海明威的创作特色。
一、“冰山风格”的象征手法在小说《老人与海》创作中的运用
海明威的小说创作中有着“冰山一角”的特色，海明威的“冰山风格”被介绍到国内的时候是这样说的：“冰山在海面上的景色是宏伟壮观的，这是因为他只有八分之一的部分露出了水面。”在《海明威美学思想初探》一文中，牟强指出，海明威用自己刻画的露出水面八分之一的物质世界来传达出了隐藏在海底世界中的八分之七的心灵世界。同时指出海明威与塞尚等现代艺术家之间的关系，在传统的现实主义和形形的现代艺术之间的某一个地方，隐隐约约地存在着一种相似的地方，借此来阐释海明威的文学艺术的特点。
对于海明威小说创作中的“冰山风格”的探讨，我们引出了小说中象征手法的运用。小说《老人与海》可以被看成是一首对人类奋斗不息的精神状态进行赞叹的颂歌，传达出了人类灵魂的尊严。再者，《老人与海》被看成一个古典悲剧，美国文学批评界将老人和俄底修斯进行比较研究，认为前者是战后的失败者，但是拥有着天真的理想，而后者是胜利的盗取者，是一个天真幼稚的英雄，老人是人类进行积极斗争的象征，是一个寓言性的形象，正如亚里士多德所说的那样：“之所以陷入了厄运，不是因为他自己无法作恶，因为他自己犯了错误。”另外一种说法是将《圣经》作为背景，把《老人与海》作为研究的载体，老人则被认为是耶稣的化身，捕鱼的全过程则被认为是耶稣受难的全过程。还有一个比较具有代表性的解释，把《老人与海》看成海明威本人对于写作看法的寓言，比如作家应该独自生活，顽强拼搏，比如写作和灵感之间的关系，又如老人和鲨鱼的搏斗象征着海明威对于评论家所持有的态度等。
在小说《老人与海》的结尾处，我们看到了一个充满悲剧色彩的结局，小说的最后一段为我们描述了桑提亚哥拖着那沉重的步子走进小屋中睡下了，但是在梦中梦见了一头勇猛的狮子，这实际上象征着海明威是在对桑提亚哥英勇无畏的斗争精神的赞扬和刻画。作品中的大海在海明威的笔下已经不再是现实中的那个大海，大海此刻象征着死亡，象征着个性的消失，而桑提亚哥要面临的就是大海这个“死亡”的威胁，并且要为了生存进行不懈的努力和斗争，“生存与死亡”就成为小说所要表现的主题。小说中的老人所捕获的马林鱼象征着物质生活，而追逐马林鱼的过程象征着生命的慢慢流逝。老人和大鲨鱼的殊死搏斗则象征着人类随时需要面对的死亡，只有进行英勇的搏斗才可以获得重生的机会。
二、硬汉形象在小说《老人与海》创作中的运用
《老人与海》中的硬汉形象一直是国内外文学家评论和研究的对象。主人公桑提亚哥就是海明威成功塑造的一个硬汉形象的代表。目前国内对于桑提亚哥这个硬汉形象的分析主要集中在其精神力量和悲剧性刻画的研究上，而二者又经常交织在一起。“一个人并不是生来就要被打败的，你也可能把他干掉，可就是消灭不了他。”这句经典话语经常被看成桑提亚哥硬汉形象的代名词，由此引出来的是“重压之下的绅士风度”。
海明威运用富有生命活力的老人形象和朦胧抽象的寓意，把现实生活中的诗情画意和人生中的生活哲理进行了完美的结合，从而成功地塑造出这位不畏艰难，维护尊严，在厄运面前甚至是人生悲剧的状态下仍保持高贵、不屈服的硬汉形象。桑提亚哥的硬汉形象主要通过几点进行体现：首先，具有所有硬汉共有的倔强、勇敢、不屈服的精神特征。
桑提亚哥在海上已经84天了，还是没有捕到任何一条鱼，可是老人并不气馁，最终发现了大鱼，为了维护自己的劳动成果和大鲨鱼展开了英勇的斗争。其次，超越了主体的境遇，赋予了桑提亚哥豪迈的人格精神。海明威笔下的很多硬汉形象都具有一定的时空性，可是桑提亚哥却是一个例外，始终一个人孤零零地出现在无边无际的大海上，和鲨鱼进行了英勇的搏杀。这种超越了时空的关系中，老人与大海的关系便有了某种特定的含义：老人与大鲨鱼的斗争就变成了一首人类与大自然，人类与命运所进行抗争的赞歌，老人最后的失败转化成寓言上的最终胜利，老人最终获得了人格上的赞扬和肯定。最后，硬汉形象刻画中的乐观因素，为小说的点睛之笔。和其他的硬汉形象相比，桑提亚哥并没有带着悲壮的色彩走向人生的失败，而是在遭遇了众多的奋斗和人生的磨难以后，仍然满怀信心地梦见了人类力量的化身——一头雄狮。
桑提亚哥也已经不再单单是硬汉的形象，更多的硬汉形象背后存在着永恒价值：积极向上，乐观自信，不屈不挠。桑提亚哥的硬汉形象具有象征性的哲学道理，他的行为代表的不仅仅是他个人，也不是一种个人英雄主义的行为，而是代表了永恒的人类精神。海明威成功地塑造出的桑提亚哥的硬汉形象激励人们在面对困难和死亡的挑战时要进行英勇的搏斗，最终为自己的生存赢得可能。
三、悲观主义意识在小说《老人与海》创作中的运用
《老人与海》中折射出海明威的孤独，矛盾和悲观的创作意识。在小说中，老人受到了自然和社会给予的双重压力：在近海已经84天没有捕到任何鱼了，生活上的拮据使他没有钱去买鱼饵和生活所需的物品，生存的残酷现实环境使得老人成为一个孤独的老人。在小说的开头，作者就为我们描述了桑提亚哥孤零零的一个人在大海上打鱼的情景，这也暗示了主人公在现实生活中的真实情况。在小说的开始，海明威就把老人置于一个孤独的位置，老人没有妻子和孩子，也没有任何亲戚朋友，生命中唯一可以交流就是小孩曼诺林，也只有那短暂的时间，老人无法向他人表达自己内心的孤独与痛苦。小说中关于老人孤零零的一个人在海上撑船打鱼的描写，更加突出了老人孤独的境地。老人和大海之间是一种对立的关系，平时大海看着温柔平静，但是有的时候也会变得无情残忍，成为老人生命的威胁和敌人。在海明威的笔下，人类的孤独似乎成为现代人的一种标示，海明威的这种创作意识和当时社会上的悲观主义情绪和虚伪主义是遥相呼应的。
小说《老人与海》的结局完美地体现了海明威的悲观主义创作意识和手法。在小说《老人与海》的结尾处，海明威营造了极其浓重的悲观主义色调，这种悲观意识主要体现在人类对于劳动成果的始终一无所获的无可奈何之情。老人在大海上经过漫长的打捞，最后终于打捞到一条大鱼，可是在归来的途中遭到了鲨鱼的猛烈攻击，老人与鲨鱼展开了猛烈的斗争，最终带回了一副鱼骨，胜利的果实被鲨鱼抢走，老人的努力并没有改变自己失败的结局，这就体现了一种荒诞的成分，也说明了人类在自然面前的一种无奈。海明威最终将悲剧的色彩作为小说《老人与海》的主旋律，这种悲剧意识反而升华了主人公的精神内涵，更是对经历了二次世界大战的人类的精神上的安慰。
四、结语
海明威在《老人与海》的创作中，充分地展示了自己不同于他人的创作风格，小说语言平常如水，简单易懂，有着现实的人物和故事情节，在叙事风格上更是“冰山原则”的完美运用，通过对人物日常生活的描写来展现出自己矛盾的内心世界。海明威塑造出的硬汉形象成为文学界的经典，是对人类精神的高度赞扬。这些也都是小说《老人与海》能够让海明威获得诺贝尔文学奖的重要因素之一。
[参考文献]
[1] Ernest Hemingway. The Old Man and the Sea[M].Simon﹠Schuster Inc.，1995.
[2] Franklin Ross Johns. The Psychology of the Human Development[M].Harper﹠Row Publisher Inc.，1985.
[3] 陈霞，周红蕊.海明威的性格特征及其对小说人物塑造的影响[J].短篇小说（原创作品版），2012（06）.
[4] 陈建永.《老人与海》的叙事分析[J]. 短篇小说（原创作品版），2012（08）.
[5] 陈靖怡. 从《老人与海》看人类生态意识的发展[J].乐山师范学院学报，2010（04）.
[6] 陈智淦，王育烽. 海明威的生态情结——从生态文学批评角度看《老人与海》与《圣经》[J]. 牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版），2007（01）.
[7] 郭遂芝.《老人与海》中的象征手法与哲学意义[J].短篇小说（原创作品版），2012（14）.
老人与海海明威范文第3篇
《老人与海》海明威小说读后感
“一艘船越过世界的尽头，驶向未知的大海，船头上悬挂着一面虽然饱经风雨剥蚀却依旧艳丽无比的旗帜，旗帜上，舞动着云龙一般的四个字闪闪发光——超越极限！”作者海明威是这样评价他的作品《老人与海》的。
《老人与海》塑造了一个经典的硬汉形象。古巴的一个名叫桑地亚哥的老渔夫，独自一个人出海打鱼，在一无所获的48天之后钓到了一条无比巨大的马林鱼。这是老人从来没见过也没听说过的比他的船还长两英尺的一条大鱼。鱼大劲也大，拖着小船漂流了整整两天两夜，老人在这两天两夜中经历了从未经受的艰难考验，终于把大鱼刺死，拴在船头。然而这时却遇上了鲨鱼，老人与鲨鱼进行了殊死搏斗，结果大马林鱼还是被鲨鱼吃光了，老人最后拖回家的只剩下一副光秃秃的鱼骨架。
海明威为什么没有让老人最终胜利呢？用小说中老人的话来说：“一个人并不是生来就要被打败的”，“人尽可以被毁灭，但却不能被打败。”这就是《老人与海》想揭示的哲理。不可否认，只要是人就都会有缺陷。当一个人承认了这个缺陷并努力去战胜它而不是去屈从它的时候，无论最后是捕到一条完整的马林鱼还是一副空骨架，这都已经无所谓了，因为一个人的生命价值已在那追捕马林鱼的过程中充分地体现了。曾经为自己的理想努力追求过、奋斗过，难道他不是一个胜利者吗？老渔夫就是敢于挑战自身缺陷及自己勇气和信心的胜利者。从世俗胜利观的角度看，老渔夫不是最后的胜利者，因为尽管开始他战胜了大马林鱼，但是最终大马林鱼还是让鲨鱼吃了，他只是带着大马林鱼的白骨架子回到了岸上，也就是说，鲨鱼才是胜利者。可是，在理想主义者眼里，老渔夫就是胜利者，因为他始终没有向大海没有向大马林鱼更没有向鲨鱼妥协和投降。就如音乐大师贝多芬所说“我可以被摧毁，但我不能被征服”。
人性是强悍的，人类本身有自己的限度，但正是因为有了老渔夫这样的人一次又一次地向限度挑战，超越它们，这个限度才一次次扩大，一次次把更大的挑战摆在了人类面前。在这个意义上，老渔夫桑地亚哥这样的英雄，不管他们挑战限度是成功还是失败，都是值得我们永远敬重的。因为，他带给我们的是人类最为高贵的自信！
人生本来就是一种无止境的追求。它的道路漫长、艰难，而且充满坎坷，但只要自己勇敢顽强地以一颗自信的心去迎接挑战，他将永远是一个真正的胜利者！
《老人与海》海明威小说读后感
“人不是为失败而生的，一个人可以被毁灭，但不能被打败。”这是文学巨匠海明威的文学巨著《老人与海》中的一句至理名言，这条格言陪着人类走过了漫长的岁月，伴着人类度过了无数艰难的时刻，毫不夸张的说，这句话一直是鼓舞着人们勇往直前的不懈动力。
《老人与海》讲述的是一位经验丰富的老渔夫圣地亚哥的故事。圣地亚哥和一位名叫马洛林的小男孩成为了忘年之交，在历经八十四天还没有捕到鱼之后，两人毅然决然的相约出海。出海那天天气很不错，而苍天也很眷顾他们，两人很容易就钓到了一条巨大的大马林鱼。两人原以为他们能就此返航龙龙，可不幸的是，他们捕获的大鱼引来了鲨鱼的围击，凶狠庞大的鲨鱼一直在猛烈进攻，似乎在逼迫着，威胁着圣地亚哥放弃这条大鱼。不过圣地亚哥也不是一个懦夫，身处危险之中，面对巨大威胁，面临死亡气息，这位老渔夫一直在顽强抵抗着。尽管最后那条肥大鲜美的大鱼被鲨鱼啃食破坏得只剩下了一副骨架，圣地亚哥也没有放弃轻易放弃这条来之不易的大鱼。
读完这篇小说后，我的感触颇深，尤其是那一句“一个人可以被毁灭，但不可以被打败。”紧紧牵动着我的心，而圣地亚哥那临危不惧，无谓抗争，永不言败，永不言弃的精神更是深深震撼着我，感动着我，启迪着我，教育着我，指导着我，鼓励着我。
人类很伟大，很坚强，很有潜力，很有毅力；但是人类又好渺小，好脆弱，好容易言败，好容易妥协。当我们遇到困难时，身处困境时，觉得害怕并不丢人，感觉恐惧也并不失常，但是我们一旦有了放弃的念头，有了逃避的想法，有了妥协的行为，那就是胆小鬼的表现了，那样只会让人寒心，让人小看，让人唾弃，让人远离。
人生在世，还是需要一点傲气，需要一些傲骨的，无论何时何地都能做到自强自信，无惧无畏，那才是真英雄，真本色！但要是自暴自弃，贪生怕死，畏手畏脚，胆小怕事，那就只会招致失败，只会深陷深渊，得不到尊敬，得不到尊重，得不到成功，得不到救赎。
希望每个人都能在遇到鲨鱼时，勇敢捍卫自己的马林鱼；但愿每个人都能在陷入困境时，大胆对抗黑暗的爪牙；也愿我们在人生征途中，能够一直勇敢坚强，不屈不挠的奋斗着，坚持着！
《老人与海》海明威小说读后感
“一个人并不是天生就要被打败的，你尽可以消灭他，却打不败他。”这句话出自于海明威的《老人与海》。这句话是这本书的精华，值得人深入思考。
本书讲述了老人圣地亚哥经过数次与鲨鱼搏斗及他捕鱼的经验，让他捕获了一条鲨鱼，在老人回来的时候，鲨鱼肉被其它凶猛的鱼夺去，老人空手而归了。
一条鲨鱼，一位老人，一只小船，一片大海，不禁令人无限感慨、无限遐想。一位老人，永不言败的精神！一片大海，充满挑战；一只小船，寂寞与苦难；这些看似平凡的事物却演绎了一个不平凡的经历。
老人与海海明威范文第4篇
关键词《:老人与海》;海明威;生态和谐
海明威是20世纪美国最重要的小说家之一,《老人与海》被很多人认为是他最重要的代表作,该部巨著的问世在使他获得了诺贝尔文学奖的同时,学术界也掀起了对其作品的研究高潮。国内外很多学者对《老人与海》的研究,大多聚焦于小说的硬汉形象、悲剧意识,虚无思想和艺术特色等,但是从生态视角进行研究的则较少,这势必造成对海明威作品研究的一个缺憾。本文试图以生态视角为观照,对这一巨著进行剖析,探究其生态学层面上的意义。生态批评(eocriticism)是研究文学和自然环境之间相互关系的学问,它通过寻找文本中自然的缺席,以研究文学作品中自然如何被再现,并通过重新发现、重新思索、重新阐释自然写作,以唤醒人们的生态保护意识。作为一位迷恋大自然的作家,对大自然的关注是海明威创作的永恒主题之一。大自然中莽莽苍苍的森林,奔腾不息的河流,波涛汹涌的大海,树木葱郁的青山,为海明威的创作提供了取之不尽的源泉,对自然的酷爱又使他一生酷爱打猎、钓鱼、游泳、滑雪等这些接近大自然的活动。他去过伊利诺斯州的大草原,密执安的铁杉林,西班牙、东非、基韦斯特、比米尼,古巴、美国西郊的落基山等地,他用心去贴近自然,欣赏自然,关注自然,努力做到回归自然。甚至他的住处———橡树园、华隆湖畔的避暑茅舍、基韦斯特了望田庄、太阳谷、凯彻姆等,都是贴近自然的风景优美的地方。他一生经历过两次世界大战以及西班牙内战,旅居过法国和古巴,到非洲打猎,到西班牙看斗牛,还当过救护车司机,受过伤,得过勋章,曾四次结婚,三次离婚,其辉煌而又坎坷的人生更加激发了他对自然的热爱,对战争的厌恶,对人类文明的失望。可以说海明威一生都在寻找未遭破坏、未被开发的自然,并希求从中找到慰藉。然而在《老人与海》中,我们虽然发现了一些生态和谐的画面,但更多的则是一幅幅生态失衡的画面,我们似乎听到了画面背后海明威老人一声声的叹息,似乎又看到了海明威老人如同书中的老人一样在生态遭到破坏的环境中挣扎着,思考着。那么他在思考什么呢?
一、没有胜负———老人圣地亚哥与大马林鱼
老人圣地亚哥出海八十四天没有捕捉到一条鱼,他不但被剥夺了代教徒弟马诺林的权利,而且受到了当地一些渔民们的白眼。为了不服输,证明自己的价值,也为了对得起他曾经获得的那些诸如圣地亚哥冠军的称号,他决定冒险,把船划进大海的深处,把陆地的气息抛到身后。圣地亚哥知道大海的深处是一个未被破坏的生态环境,在他和他的小船到来之前一直保持着自身的生态平衡,构建着自身的生态和谐。他的到来必将破坏它的生态和谐,尽管他也爱着朝夕相处的大海,因为在老人圣地亚哥看来,自然界应该是人类的朋友、兄弟,甚至是母亲。他常梦到“小时候见到的非洲,长长的金色海滩和白色海滩,白得刺眼,还有高耸的海峡和褐色的大山…,他不再梦见风暴,不再梦见妇女们,不再梦见发生过的大事,不再梦见大鱼,不再梦见打架,不再梦见角力,不再梦见他的妻子,他如今只梦见某些地方和海滩上的狮子。它们在暮色中像小猫一般戏耍着,他爱它们,如同他爱这男孩”。(参见海明威《春潮·老人与海》,吴劳译,上海译文出版社2004年出版。下面引文同出此书)。他非常喜爱飞鱼,因为“它们是他在海洋上的主要朋友…他替鸟儿伤心,尤其是那些柔弱的黑色小燕鸥…海洋是仁慈并十分美丽的…这老人总是拿海洋当女性”。可见他梦中的狮子不再是凶猛的草原之王,而是像小猫一样可爱,于是在梦中他和狮子的关系不是猎杀和被猎杀的关系,而是像伙伴一样地相互嬉戏,而他和大海的关系也就像母子关系一样。既然他和大海相依为命,是不可分割的一个整体,从理论上来说他得保护大海,不能伤害大海,包括里面的大马林鱼,这样他才能和大海构成一个和谐的生态环境;然而现实迫使他放弃了原先的信条,侵入了大马林鱼的活动领域,准备破坏既有的和谐,而大马林鱼也在无意中中了老人的圈套,生态和谐进一步走向失衡。尽管在老人圣地亚哥和大马林鱼之间出现了如下的一些和谐画面“:鱼儿一刻不停地游着,鱼和船在平静的水面上慢慢地行进…再吃一些吧,美美地吃吧…鱼儿,我爱你,非常尊敬你…我巴望也能养那条大鱼,他想,它是我的兄弟…你觉得怎样啊,鱼啊?拖着这船吧,鱼啊…这条鱼也是我的朋友”,但这种人鱼一体的画面背后总是充斥着即将到来的血腥屠杀,而老人也一次又一次地表明了他对大马林鱼的态度“,鱼儿,我要奉陪你到死…不过我今天得把你杀死…我不得不把它杀死,而且得保持精力来这样做…不过我必须把它弄死”。于是无辜的大马林鱼便从不知不觉地中计、全力以赴地逃跑、难以忍受地疲惫、困兽犹斗地反抗,而逐渐走向挣扎,无奈,绝望和毁灭。最后这令人揪心的一幕彻底把人鱼生态的和谐毁掉了“,老人放下钓索,一脚踩住,把鱼叉举得尽可能地高,使出全身的力气,加上刚才鼓起的力气,把它朝下直扎进鱼身的一边,他感觉到那铁叉扎了进去,就把身子倚在上面,把它扎得更深一点,再用全身的重量把它压下……于是那鱼闹腾起来,尽管死到临头了,它从水中高高跃起…然后,它砰的一声掉在水里,浪花溅了老人一身,溅了一船。”大马林鱼虽然死掉了,然而它并没有失败,它在和老人的搏斗中很有风度地、优雅地离去了,它没有放弃自己的尊严与抵抗,它已经为自己和谐的生态环境负了应尽的责任,它让老人吃尽了苦头,使他浑身是伤,疲惫不堪,心力憔悴,最终一无所获。大马林鱼失去了生命,赢得了尊重,老人圣地亚哥付出了惨重的代价打死了大马林鱼却得不到它,可见老人圣地亚哥和大马林鱼都在实践着书中的那句话“一个人可以被毁灭,但不可以给打败”。大马林鱼虽然被毁灭了,但没有被打败,老人圣地亚哥虽然毁灭了大马林鱼,但没有打败它,也没有得到它,他们之间没有胜利者。
二、没有胜负———大马林鱼与鲨鱼,老人圣地亚哥与鲨鱼
大马林鱼和鲨鱼是和谐的海洋生态圈的组成部分,他们能否和谐相处在很大程度上关系到海洋生态的平衡。在《老人与海》中,他们却和睦不再,可怜的大马林鱼虽然悲壮地死了,但凶猛的鲨鱼却并没有放过它,在不同的时间,不同的海域,不同的鲨鱼群向已经丧失抵抗能力的大马林鱼发动了一轮又一轮的进攻,规模也越来越大,大马林鱼在默默无闻中任人宰割,身上一块块肉被无情的鲨鱼撕下,在悲壮、惨烈、血腥的屠杀中变得体无完肤,最后只剩下白骨和长刺,生态和谐再次被杀戮替代。但鲨鱼并不是胜利者,而大马林鱼也不是失败者,因为鲨鱼被老人圣地亚哥打得死的死、伤的伤,老人圣地亚哥的行动虽说是为了保护自己用生命拼来的大马林鱼,但却以另外方式为已经死去的大马林鱼报了仇,可见在这场战斗中,鲨鱼不是胜利者,而大马林鱼也不是失败者,因为老人圣地亚哥替它报了仇。同时我们不难发现,老人圣地亚哥虽然打死 第3期一场没有胜负的战斗打伤了一群又一群的鲨鱼,但却无法保住他的战利品大马林鱼。对鲨鱼来说,老人圣地亚哥是它们业已生活许久的海洋生态环境的侵入者、破坏者,对其战利品大马林鱼的攻击就是对老人的有力反抗,最终它们以死伤为代价消灭了整个大马林鱼,可见老人圣地亚哥和鲨鱼之间的战斗也没有胜利者。
三、没有胜负———老人圣地亚哥与社会
老人圣地亚哥是一个打鱼技术顶呱呱、恪守传统捕鱼技术的倔强老人。在八十四天没有捕捉到一条鱼的情况下,人们认为他倒了血霉“,不少渔夫拿老人开玩笑”,他消瘦憔悴,手上有勒得很深的伤疤,没钱买吃食,得靠原来的徒弟马诺林给他送来;而曾跟他一起捕鱼的男孩马诺林,迫于父母的压力最后也离开了他,于是他被剥夺了代教徒弟马诺林的权利,而马诺林是他身边唯一的伙伴和助手,可以说支撑着老人圣地亚哥活下去的精神支柱又被抽掉了一根。马诺林到了另外一条船上,头一个礼拜就打到了三条好鱼,当地渔民们又怎能不对老人白眼相看呢?在物质状况不断恶化的情况下,他的精神与心理也承受了巨大的压力,受到了极大的打击。为了证明自己的价值,也为了对得起他那些诸如圣地亚哥冠军称号的辉煌历史,物质上已陷于困顿、心理上也陷入了绝对孤独的老人不顾一切地要到远海去打一条大鱼。在漫长的三天里,他拼尽全力并且用尽所有技巧却仍像以前一样一无所获。他痛苦地挣扎到自己的棚屋中后,生命体征都已经大幅下降,鱼具也基本被全部毁坏,他虽然向社会证明了自己不屈的精神和高超的捕鱼技术,但除此之外却一无所得,物质状况和身体状况的恶化还将继续下去,心理承担的压力也不会减轻很多,因此也不能说他在和社会之间的战斗中取得了胜利。同样,他一无所获的回来虽然不能让社会的人对他完全认同,而只能换来人们的一丝同情,但当时社会上对他白眼的人会因为他三天不屈不挠的战斗精神和捕鱼技术而认为他有别于从前,因此社会在和老人圣地亚哥的战斗中也没有获胜。应该看到,尽管男孩马诺林决定不顾父母和社会上的反对回到老人圣地亚哥的身边(似乎老人占了上风),尽管老人准备改善捕鱼工具,弄一支好钢做的长矛(似乎老人下次会获胜),但再好的钢做的长矛也不能掩盖捕鱼工具上的落后,和当时已经被很多人采用的先进捕鱼技术已经无法相比,其后果必将是下一次捕捉大鱼的失败,徒弟将再次离开他,他将再次面临上一次八十四天捕捉不到鱼的困难局面和尴尬境地。可见老人圣地亚哥与社会之间本应该是一个和谐的生态环境,却因双方种种原因而被破坏,结果是两败俱伤,不分胜负。
四、没有胜负———海明威与社会
评论界普遍认为海明威和当时他所生活的社会之间也可以看作是一场战斗。这是因为海明威《老人与海》之前的作品《丧钟为谁响起》既受到了读者的欢迎,也遭到评论界的批评,不少评论者认为此书和他先前的《有钱的和没钱的》缺乏海明威原先那种凝炼、白描、控制、纯净的艺术风格和冰山一角的写作原则,取而代之的是情感的宣泄和思想的直露,认为海明威在创作上开始走下坡路的人不在少数。《过河入林》毫无节制地表现了一位身患癌症的退休美军上校追思昔日恋人、顾影自怜的伤感情调,更加深了评论界的这一推断(参见李公昭《20世纪英国文学导论》第139页,西安交通大学出版社2000年版)。很多学者认为,在这种情况下,海明威像老人圣地亚哥一样也承受了巨大的社会压力,也急于向社会证明自己不朽的创作力。而他沉寂十多年之后并且于1952年发表的《老人与海》这部作品则让评论界眼前一亮。他们普遍认为这部文笔优美、风格纯净、思想深邃的巨著恢复了他在《太阳照样升起》等作品中的自律、优雅、紧凑、凝炼的写作风格,将他的叙事艺术推向了一个新的高度,他也重新获得人们的尊重和认可,并获美国文学最高奖普利策奖和诺贝尔文学奖。于是很多学者说,这证明了海明威在与社会的战斗中获得了胜利。然而笔者认为,海明威在长期的写作生活和坎坷的人生体验中应该对他和社会的这场战斗持无所谓的态度,一种平和的态度。正如前文所阐述那样海明威是一个迷恋大自然的作家,是一个重视生态和谐的作家,他早已把自己融入了自然,融入了社会,早已把自己和社会看作是人与自然的关系中的一部分,并且把维护这一整体关系的和谐作为自己终身实践的目标。这在他的多部作品中都有反映,如《最后一方净土》、《永别了,武器》《、乞力马扎罗的雪》以及《丧钟为谁响起》等。既然他根本就没把社会作为斗争对象,又哪来的胜负之说呢?而《老人与海》获得巨大成功之后,评论界再次掀起了研究海明威的热潮,正如说不尽的莎士比亚一样,该书留给社会一个说不尽的海明威,海明威似乎俘虏了社会,但社会每时每刻的不停变化又何尝不是海明威以后的写作素材呢。此时他似乎又成了社会的俘虏,这似乎告诉我们相互俘虏才是他和社会之间生态和谐之所在。
海明威在《老人与海》中依据真实人物和事件塑造了圣地亚哥,一个破坏了海洋生态环境又不断表示后悔的老人,老人不断说的那句“我原不该出海这么远的,鱼啊,对你对我都不好啊,鱼啊”,不就是海明威本人观点的真实流露吗?可见海明威与社会之间的战斗的胜负无从说起,也就无法分出高低了。正如有说不尽的莎士比亚”一样,我们又何尝不能有说不尽的《老人与海》”呢?自从《老人与海》这部博大精深的巨著问世以来,它激起了一个又一个学者的研究兴趣,他们从不同方面,不同视角或者是相同视角的不同认识来阐述他们的观点。为了丰富与补充这些学者们的观点,本文从生态视角全面阐述了老人圣地亚哥与大马林鱼,大马林鱼与鲨鱼,老人圣地亚哥与鲨鱼,老人圣地亚哥与社会,海明威与社会之间的战斗是没有胜利者的战斗。笔者相信在以后有关《老人与海》的生态视角的研究中,还会有许多全新的观点,我们期待那一天的尽早到来。
参考文献:
1.海明威(hemingwvay,e.)1春潮·老人与海[m].吴劳译.上海译文出版社,2004.
2.何树、苏友先.美国文学导读与应试指南[z].上海世界图书出版公司,2005.
3.李公昭.20世纪美国文学导论[m].西安交通大学出版社,2000.
4.刘海平、王守仁1新编美国文学史第三卷[m].上海外语教育出版社,2002.
老人与海海明威范文第5篇
being distinguished from many greatest american writers, hemingway is noted for his writing style. among all his works, the old man and the sea is a typical one to his unique writing style and technique. the language is simple and natural on the surface, but actually deliberate and artificial. sometimes the simple style is made a little different. the dialogue is combined with the realistic and the artificial. the simplicity is highly suggestive, and often reflects the strong undercurrent of emotion. occasionally, the author uses some figures of speech. hemingway’s style is related to his experience as a journalist, his learning from many famous writers, and most importantly, his conscientious effort in looking for a style of his own. the influence of his style is great all over the world.
the old man and the sea is full of facts, most of which comes from hemingway’s own experience. so the way to use facts is a very important writing technique in this novel. the facts in the novel are selected and used as a device to make the fictional world accepted. in the forepart of the novel, they are used to show the quality of santiago’s life, and are narrated simply and naturally; while in the latter part of the novel, they are used from inside santiago’s own consciousness and form part of a whole scheme of the novel.
keywords: facts; simplicity; artificial; iceberg theory
中文摘要
在众伟大的美国作家中，海明威以独特的写作风格而著称。在他所有的作品中，《老人与海》最能体现他独特的写作风格和手法。这部小说语言看似简洁自然，其实包含了作者的精心揣摩和润色加工。有时为了突出某一部分，作者会采用长句代替短句。文中的对话内容真实、贴近生活，而表达形式则经过了艺术加工。小说简洁自然的语言背后隐藏了深刻的意义和感情。文中还运用了比喻、拟人等修辞手法.还名位的这种独特风格与他当过新闻记者的经历有关,同时他兼菜各家之长,自成一体,形成了自己独特的创作方法和艺术风格。这种风格对整个世界文坛产生了重要的影响。
《老人与海》这部小说中运用了大量的事实,他们大多来自于作者亲身经历。海明威对这些事实精心选择,从而吸引读者的兴趣并使读者有一种身临其境的感觉。小说一开始用大量事实描写了主人公生活的环境,叙述风格简洁自然,未加任何感情色彩。随着情节的发展,大量的事实主要被运用于主人公的心理活动之中,而不是主要由作者来叙述。同时,这些事实构成了整个小说体系中不可缺少的一部分。
关键词：
事实；简洁；加工；冰山理论
hemingway’s writing style and techniques in the old man and the sea
introduction
the old man and the sea (1952) comes round at the finish of hemingway’s writing career. with its vivid characterization, its simple language, and the profound implicating it carries, it stands out as one of the excellent books hemingway’s former stature as the word’s preeminent novelist after hemingway’s unsuccessful novel across the river and into the trees (1950). the old man and the sea earned its author the pulitzer prize in fiction for 1952, and was instrumental in winning him the nobel prize for literature two years later. it is a short novel about santiago, an old cuban fisherman who has gone for 84 days without catch. therefore the boy, mandolin, who used to sail with him, is forced to leave him and catch in another ship. the old man insists on fishing alone and at last, he hooks an eighteen-foot, giant marlin, the largest he has ever known. but the fish is very powerful and disobedient. it tows the old man and his boat out to sea for 48 hours, with the old man bearing the whole weight of the fish through the line on his back. the old man, with little food and sleep, has to endure much pain and fights against his treacherous hand cramp. to his great excitement, on his third day at sea, he succeeds in drawing the weakened marlin to the surface and harpoons it. on his way home, he lashes marlin alongside his boat because it is too big to be pulled into the boat. but, unfortunately, the come across sharks in different numbers for four times. the old man fights to kill the sharks with as much might and many weapons as he can summon, but only to find a giant skeleton of his marlin left after his desperate defense. at last, santiago, having lost what he fought for, reaches the shore and struggles to his shack. he falls into sound sleep, dreaming of africa, and the lions again. his struggle wins him much respect.
among many great american writers, hemingway is famous for his objective and terse prose style. as the last novel hemingway published in his life, the old man and the sea typically reflects his unique writing style. this paper aims to discuss the writing style and techniques in the old man and the sea. of course, hemingway has used many techniques in this novel, such as realism, the creation of suspense, monologue, etc. and this paper focuses especially on the language style and one of the important techniques-the way to use facts in this novel.
hemingway is famous for his language. with much care and effort, he created a very influential and immediately recognizable style. “the style he created in his early work, such as in our time and the sun also rises, was almost too good. like the style of certain painters, it tended to become a manner, rather than a flexible way of responding to experience and conveying fresh insights through words.”1 among all his works, the old man and the sea is the most typical one to his unique language style. its language is simple and natural, and has the effect of directness, clarity and freshness. this is because hemingway always manages to choose words “`concrete, specific, more commonly found, more anglo-saxon, casual and conversational.” 2 he seldom uses adjectives and abstract nouns, and avoids complicated syntax. hemingway’s strength lies in his short sentences and very specific details. his short sentences are powerfully loaded with the tension, which he sees in life. where he does not use a simple and short sentence, he connects the various parts of the sentence in a straightforward and sequential way, often linked by “and”.
in his task of creating real people, hemingway uses dialogue as an effective device. it is presented in a form “as close to the dramatic as possible, with a minimum of explanatory comment.”3 here is an example chosen from the old man and the sea:
‘what do you have to eat?’ the boy asked.
‘no, i will eat at home. do you want me to make the fire?’
‘no, i will make it later on. or i may eat the rice cold.’
here we can see that such interpolations as “he said” have frequently been omitted and the words are very colloquial. thus the speech comes to the reader as if he were listening. hemingway has captured the immediacy of dialogue skillfully and has made the economical speech connotative.
but it is good to note that hemingway’s style is deliberate and artificial, and is never as natural as it seems to be. the reasons are as follows. firstly, in some specific moments, in order to stand out by contrast and to describe an important turning point or climax, the style is made a little different:
he took all his pain and what was left of his long gone pride and he put it against the fish’s agony and the fish came over on to his side and swam gently on his side, his bill almost touching the planking of the skiff, and started to pass the boat, long, deep, wide, silver and barred with purple and interminable in the water.5
the language in this one-sentence paragraph is different from other parts of the novel. kenneth graham has commented that the sentence builds up its parts in a carefully laborious sequence-“all his pain and what was left of his strength and his long gone pride”. it emulates the movement of the exhausted marlin and the physical strain of the old man. and it mounts to a heavy crescendo in the very un-prosaic inversion of adjectives-“long, deep, wide”-ending in the virtually poetic cadence, “interminable in the water.”6
the dialogue, too, is combined with the realistic and the artificial. usually the content contains and the expression contains the artificial. in the old man and the sea, the language style is very peculiar from hemingway’s other writings. this is because the novel is an english version of the spanish that santiago and mandolin would speak in real life. “since we are meant to realize that santiago and mandolin could not possibly speak like this, since english is not his tongue anyway, we are more likely to accept other artificialities of the dialogue. using the device of a pretended ‘translation’, which would be bound to stilt in any case, hemingway can ‘poetize’ the dialogue as he wishes.”7 the speakers are distanced from readers to a certain degree. and while their language taking on a kind of epic dignity, it does not lose its convincingness. even slightly strange exchanges like the following become fairly acceptable. for example:
‘you’re my alarm clock’, the boy said.
‘age is my alarm clock’, the old man said. ‘why do old man wake so early? is it to have one longer day?’
‘i don’t know’, the boy said. ‘all i know is that young boys sleep late and hard’.
‘i can remember it’, the old man said. ‘ i’ll waken you in time.’8
the simple sentences and the repeated rhythms hit at the profundities that the surface of the language tries to ignore. its simplicity is highly suggestive and connotative, and often reflects the strong undercurrent of emotion. indeed, the more closely the reader watches, the less rough and simple the characters appear. in death in the afternoon, hemingway uses an effective metaphor to describe his writing style:
if a writer of the prose knows enough about what he is writing about, he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. the dignity of movement of an iceberg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water.9
among all the works of hemingway, the saga of santiago is thought as the most typical one to this iceberg theory. the author seldom expresses his own feelings directly, nor does he make any comments or explanations. on the contrary, he tries to narrate and describe things objectively and blend his own feelings harmoniously to the natural narration and description this gives readers a pictures compression, from which-the 1/8 of the iceberg above water, they can learn the implying meaning and feelings of the author- 7/8 of the iceberg under water. when hemingway said of this story, “i tried to make a real old man, a real sea and real sharks”, he then went on to say, “but if i made them good and true enough they would mean many things.”10 so this novel has a great and significance conveyed by a compressed action. the core of the novel’s action is fishing. to the hero, fishing is not simply of contest in life. it contains profound philosophic meaning. in addition, two details-the baseball match and the hand wresting with the negro, like fishing, symbolize the contention in life. they compensate and enrich the inner meaning of the main plot of fishing. so the simplicity of the novel is highly suggestive.
occasionally, the author uses such figures of speech as metaphor, personification, etc to describe details. hemingway likes to us natural things to make metaphors. for example, he describes santiago’s eyes as “the same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated.”11the metaphor reveals that the old man is closely linked with nature. at the beginning of the novel, a simile is used: “the sail was patched with flour sacks and, furled, it looked like the flag of permanent defeat.”12 here santiago’s eyes are contrasted with the patched sail, which symbolize defeat, as reveals santiago’s unyielding character.
so hemingway has formed of narrative and dialogue, though natural and simple on the surface, is actually deliberated and artificial. it combines elements that are realistic with elements that are stylized and heightened.
how hemingway has formed such a writing style? the reason is related to his own experiences. “his use of short sentences and paragraphs and vigorous and positive language, and the deliberate avoidance of gorgeous adjectives are some of the traces of his early journalistic practices.”13 after leaving school at 17, he went to the kansas city star, which was one of the best newspapers in america at that time. he served as its eager and energetic reporter. as a journalist, hemingway trained himself in the economy of expression. he once said that, during his working in star, he had to learn to use simple sentences, which is very useful to him; and that the experience of working as a journalist would not do harm to a young writer, instead it is very helpful if he could cast it off timely. he laid stress on “speaking” with facts and objected groundless concoction in writing. his descriptions of details are full of factuality, and are as precise as news reports.
the influence of hemingway’s language style is great. in the latter part of his life, hemingway was known as “papa hemingway.”14 it refers mainly to his contribution to the development of a new writing style in america-the colloquial style. his simple word, short sentences and vividly colloquial language purity american novel. in england, which miss storm jameson discussing “the craft of the novelist” in the january 1934 issue of the english review, she advanced an explanation of hemingway’s popularity:
it is this simplicity, this appeal to our crudest interests, which explains hemingway’s success…in english at least his success has been largely with the intellectuals. thy have praised his simplicity, his directness…15
when hemingway’s death was reported on 3 july 1961, the obituary in the tines pronounced pontifically:
no history of the literature of our time will be able to ignore his achievement or his far-reaching influence…his last masterpiece, the old man and the sea, he remained a solitary both in achievement and style…16
and hemingway’s influence as a stylist was “neatly expressed in the praise of the noble prize committee about ‘his powerful style-forming mastery of the art’ of writing modern fiction.”17
apart from the language style, which the old man and the sea is famous for, the writing techniques in this novel are also worth paying close attention to. a very important one of them is the way to use facts. the main events of the story seem to be based on a real incident, which is described by hemingway in an article about fishing in the gulf stream in esquire for april 1936. so the novel of full facts, such as the habit of fish, the technique of catching marlin, the weather, the sea, and so on. but the power of the novel lies in the way to use these facts.
firstly the facts are selected. “hemingway’s old man, boy, sea, fish, and sharks are not so much built up in our minds, detail by detail, facts by facts, as drive into our mind by the force and the sympathy with which the author himself shares in their imaginary existence.”18 like any realist, he relies on selection. when the giant marlin finally surfaces, his tail “was higher than a big scythe blade and a very pale lavender above the dark blue water.”19 sargasso weed is bleached and yellow by day; tuna are silver when they jump out if the water, but blue-backed and gold-sides when swimming. hemingway never described them with excessively, but choose some effective ones. he uses them with a sense of how colors shift and change in their relationship. without selection, there can be no intensity, and compression.
secondly, the facts are used as a device to make the fictional word accepted. the novel is not simply a manual for us to study the technique to catch a fish or how to survive in a boat. the author tries to implicate people’s imagination in what is happening by appealing to our love of practical knowledge. this shows “the facts are fundamentally a device, a technique of reassuring our sense of everyday values.”20 so they can help to make us accept more readily what the author has invented and made more dramatic than in everyday life. still take the use of color as example:
the clouds over the land now rose like mountains and the coast was only a long green line with the gray-blue hills behind it. the water was a dark blue now, so dark that it was almost purple. as he looked down into it he saw the red sifting of the plankton in the dark water and the strange light the sun made now.21
these facts show readers the process of fishing, which mostly comes from the author’s own experience. from these facts, which are vivid, precise and terse, readers can learn a lot about how to catch a fish and can also feel as if they themselves were catching a fish. then they will have the sense that what the author describes is real and believable. therefore, as kenneth graham has said, many facts in the novel about fishing and about the sea have a double function: they satisfy people’s sense of the real word. and this is what underlies hemingway’s famous statement that his intention was always to convey to the reader “the way it was.”22
all in all, hemingway’s language in the old man and the sea is simple and natural on the surface, but actually deliberate and artificial. “the language is rarely emotional. rather, it controls emotions: it holds them in.”23 the forming of this distinct style is related to hemingway’s own experience. and the influence of this style is not only within america but also all over the world. the facts in the novel are selected and used as a device to make the fictional world accepted. unlike other novelists who add allegorical meanings to their facts, hemingway uses the facts simply and naturally, without any emotion. in the latter part of the novel, instead of being narrated by the author, the facts are used from inside santiago’s own consciousness, and form part of a whole scheme of the novel. besides what have been mentioned above, other techniques in the old man and the sea, such as realism, monologue, the creation of suspense and so on, are also very successful. all these show hemingway’s superb artistic attainments as a nobel prize winner.
notes:
1. kenneth graham, “commentary” in york notes: the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1991), p41
2. chang yaoxin, “chapter 14” in a survey of american literature, (tianjin: nankai university press, 1987), p304
3. mary a. campbell, “study guide” in the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1998), p126
4. ernest hemingway, the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1998), p8
5. ibid, p83
6. kenneth graham, “commentary” in york notes: the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1991), p42
7. ibid, p45
8. ernest hemingway, the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1998), p20
9. ernest hemingway, death in the afternoon, (new york, 1932), p138
10. times, 13 december 1954.
11. ernest hemingway, the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1998), p2
12. ibid, p1
13. chang yaoxin, “chapter 14” in a survey of american literature, (tianjin: nankai university press, 1987), p295
14. a.e.hotchner, papa hemingway, (new york: random house, 1966), p1
15. roger asselineau, ed, “hemingway’s english reputation” in the literary reputation of hemingway in europe, (new york: new york university press, 1965), p15
16. ibid, p10
17. chang yaoxin, “chapter 14” in a survey of american literature, (tianjin: nankai university press, 1987), p305
18. kenneth graham, “commentary” in york notes: the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1991), p25
19. ernest hemingway, the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1998), p79
20. kenneth graham, “commentary” in york notes: the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1991), p29
21. ernest hemingway, the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1998), p26
22. kenneth graham, “commentary” in york notes: the old man and the sea, (beijing: world publishing corporation, 1991), p29
23. peter b. high, “chapter 11” in an outline of american literature, (new york: long man inc., 1986), p147
bibliography:
1. chang yaoxin, “chapter 14” in a survey of american literature. tianjin: nankai university press, 1987
2. kenneth graham, “commentary” in york notes: the old man and the sea. beijing: world publishing corporation, 1991
3. ernest hemingway, the old man and the sea. beijing: world publishing corporation, 1998
4. 崔道怡等编.《“冰山”理论：对话与潜对话》工人出版社， 1987.
